[ENGLISH]

Speaking of how moving images introduced in the Netherlands Indies (today Indonesia), we need to strip briefly about the origin of animated photography, the music as the companion, also the cinema or bioscoop where the moving pictures were exhibited. As the moving pictures humankind first knew was the silent one with additional sound, the sources of sound might come to vary. Along with the Edison’s Phonograph that was first introduced and demonstrated on Java in May 1892, in fact, later the sound in the screening of the moving pictures didn’t only source from the phonograph, narration, music instruments, or orchestra group, but also came from human-whistle. Tong Tong magazine noted in 1958, a man called Boong Indri recalled his first cinema screening memories which happened in Bandung, on 26 August 1904. There were three films on the program: The Man with Dog Vision, A Street in Mecca, and The Circulatory System of a Frog. He shared how he and some lads were asked to whistle along with the piano to score the moving pictures. From his memory, personally, the activity of whistle-along-with-the-moving-pictures reminds me much of the classic black and white Mickey Mouse was whistling and controlling a ship’s steering wheel (Steamboat Willie, 1928), screened on TV in form of digital. A distinctive cinema experience to tell, yet definitely, the one that is old enough to be well memorized in my generation’s childhood.

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From photography to moving pictures

At first, photography was used in the Netherlands Indies to capture landscapes, street life, biodiversity, factories, houses, and portrait or group photos.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Surprisingly, when the moving pictures came in, people in the Netherlands Indies recognized and accepted the moving pictures faster due to their existing culture to see stage spectacle. Puppet show (wayang, ludruk) and stage spectacle (Komedie Stamboel, European and Malay Toneel opera) were common as entertainment, held in a public space/building to be regarded by people who could afford tickets. They soon got the understanding and high enthusiasm for a new entertainment product that appears in a new medium: moving pictures, that was expected to offer more things than the existing spectacles did.

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The moving pictures were popularized and commercialized by the entrepreneurs of myriad nationalities and ethnicities, with rapid progress as in the West. By these independent entrepreneurs, it revealed that early cinema was almost instantly a global phenomenon, a chance for panoramic novelty showcased to audiences in the world, also the film exhibition and local production in remote colonial lands.

 

An article from De Kinematograaf claimed that the Netherlands Indies in the pre-First World War period was only a market where old, degraded film copies from the Netherlands could be shipped off to. Therefore, even though the Dutch never was the primary exporters or producers of moving pictures in the Netherlands Indies in the early days of cinema, people had the opportunity to see the newest moving pictures from the West within 1-2 years after the premiere in European countries. Reportedly, Queen Wilhemina documentaries were screened in Netherlands Indies around 1900.

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As the earliest screening noted in Batavia was in 1896, in the process of introducing moving pictures in the Netherlands Indies, there are two names to be mentioned: Harley with the Kinetoscope and Louis Talbot with the Scenimatograph.

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In the same year, Harley used the Phonograph to exhibit moving pictures with Edison’s Kinetoscope. Kinetoscope is a machine with the peephole system to be seen per 1 person, accompanied by the sound of the Phonograph, shown animated photography that gives similitude of life and motion, with rechargeable battery technology. While Scenimatograph projected the moving pictures on the big screen as we experienced in the cinema today.

 

Louis Talbot himself was a Batavia-based French photographer. He had been operating a photography studio in Batavia since 1894 and was a well-regarded professional in the city. Later, Java-Bode noted that the earliest commercial projections of animated photography were performed by an apparatus named as the Scenimatograph on Sunday, 11 October 1896, with Talbot as the exhibitor. Louis Talbot was also the first to film and exhibit local views of colonial Indonesia to local audiences, as well as to spectators across Southeast Asia.

 

Two days before the screening night, on 9 October 1896, the screening advertisement began to appear in the major Batavia newspapers. The screening happened in the Batavia Theatre (Batavia Schouwburg, also known as komedie gebouw or komedie house) located in the Chinatown district, scheduling two screenings: the first at 6.30 pm and the second at 7.30 pm.

 

Even though, the screening was successful and attracted many spectators. Unfortunately, some problems occur, such as due to the tropical climate of the Netherlands Indies, the medium of films were challenged to be kept in optimal condition. This leads to films’ short life span and screened in oftentimes before the films went damaged. Sadly, this miserable storage condition still happens until today in Indonesia, we’ve lost too much precious archives to track our cinema history.

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Bioscoop: Spectators and Screen

Differentiated by many aspects, the screening of moving pictures in the Netherlands Indies derived its personalized history, experiences, and culture of moving pictures exhibition. Some aspects to be elaborated are exhibition buildings, economic impact, and the seating or class system.

 

After the first moving picture shows given by Louis Talbot in April 1897 in Surabaya, the competition with other forms of entertainment and rival moving picture entrepreneurs was tight. As moving picture shows began to move out of existing theatres (like Surabaya Theatre and Kapasan Theatre) into larger circus tents or independently touring canvas tents, which often offered seats for “Native” spectators at lower prices, the increasing diversity of audiences and the subsequent need to organize spaces accordingly were a prominent part of the movie-going experience in Surabaya.

 

Similar as in Batavia, temporary buildings were also available before Kebon Jahe cinema as the first permanent building for showing moving pictures. Those temporary buildings were mostly portable and made of canvas or bamboo tents to accommodate huge number of crowds. Ticket price ranged from f 0,1 to f 2 (f read: Netherlands Antillean Guilder or Gulden), considered by some factors like the projector’s clarity and in the permanent building or outdoor screening. With its biggest target, the lower economic class people to see the spectacles, usually the most sold ticket was the second and third-class ticket. On 30 November 1900 Bintang Betawi press advertised that moving pictures from Europe and Northern Africa will be shown. The show started at 7 PM with 3 classes of ticket price, first-class f 2, second-class f 1, and third class f 0,50. 

 

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Later on, in 1901 cinema building owners made the policy for reducing the price of admission tickets along with the policy of the prohibition of the puppet show in Batavia. This prohibition was by the decision of the Resident of Batavia which was enforced from 1 April 1900 to the end of March 1902. This caused the number of moving pictures spectators was growing significantly. People turned to the moving pictures as they already get used to enjoying some spectacles as Saturday night entertainment. Of course, with the separated seating system for men and women, besides, the seating system was first segregated by the racial. As the first class was served for Europeans, second class for Chinese, Indian, and non-Europeans, and the third class for “Native” spectators. “Natives” were often located behind or upwards of the screen, so they enjoyed the text or pictures reversely or distorted while seated on the ground.

 

With the lowest price ticket (f 0,1), it economically equals to about 1,5 litre of rice in the early 20th century, while today one guilder is worth around 45 cents. For that, people started seeking advance payments or pawning valuable possessions to afford a ticket. Around in 1905, the cinema would later be blamed as the motivation for such behaviour, as one employer from Buitenzorg (today Bogor) in central Java complained: “Employees ask for advance payment no longer because their father or mother passed away, – I had a stable boy who lost seven mothers, – but because they want to go to the bioscoop.”

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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After fiction films were available in 1903, ticket prices started to rise too. Fictions like Njai Dasima and Méliès’s attributions turned trends into a new direction, along with the documentary screening. The popularization kept rising until in 1905 the entrepreneurs were multiplied and the projectors were more accessible for sale and distribution. Even in 1907, there were reportedly 35 companies touring Java alone, holding shows up to three times a day in bamboo tents accommodating thousands of spectators.

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By the early 1910s, brick and stone cinema houses were constructed in cities and towns across the archipelago. Later, the history of moving pictures in the Netherlands Indies essentially began in the 1920s, when Indonesians became involved in filmmaking. And today, the influence of moving pictures in the Netherlands Indies as entertainment product now has developed to other forms and functions: performances, video and media art, mapping tools, and many more.

 

References:

[1] Misbach Yusa Biran, Sejarah Film 1900-1950 Bikin Film di Jawa, Jakarta: Komunitas Bambu, 2009.

[2] Dafna Ruppin, The Komedi Bioscoop: The Emergence of Movie-going in Colonial Indonesia 1896-1914, John Libbey Publishing Limited.

[3] M. Sarief Arief, Permasalahan Sensor Dan Pertanggungjawaban Etika Produksi, Jakarta: Badan Pertimbangan Perfilman Nasional, 1997.

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[CHINESE]

https://funscreen.tfai.org.tw/article/7978

 

動態影像如何引入荷屬東印度：從1896年至1910年代談起

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如若要談論動態影像（moving images）如何被引進荷屬東印度（今天的印尼），我們就需要先簡短談一談活動照片（animated photography）、伴奏音樂、以及動態圖像得以展示的戲院（cinema，荷蘭語為bioscoop）。人類最先認識的動態圖像，乃是無聲圖像伴隨著附加上去的聲響，而且這些聲響的音源多元紛繁。愛迪生的留聲機在1892年5月引進爪哇。事實上，之後動態放映時所伴奏的聲響，並不只是來自愛迪生留聲機、口頭講述、樂器或樂團小隊，也來自人聲口哨。《Tong Tong》雜誌在1958年報導，一個名叫Boong Indri的人，回憶他的首次觀影記憶，那是在1904年8月26日的萬隆。節目表上有三部電影：《狗視角的人》（The Man with Dog Vision）、《聖城麥加的一條街》（A Street in Mecca）、以及《一隻青蛙的循環系統》（The Circulatory System of a Frog）。他分享了這個回憶：有人要求他和一些小伙子跟著鋼琴吹口哨，幫活動圖像配樂。根據他的個人回憶，「跟著影像吹口哨」讓我想起了一部經典黑白動畫：米老鼠在汽船上一邊吹口哨一邊掌舵的《汽船威利號》（Steamboat Willie, 1928）。我看的這部卡通乃是電視上播映的數位化版本，這是一次獨特的電影體驗。然而，無疑地，要能訴說這樣的體驗，是一個我這個世代的兒童必須要先成長到有足夠能力得以去記憶的體驗。

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從攝影到動態圖像

最初，攝影術在荷屬東印度是被用來捕捉地景、街頭百態、各種生物、工廠、屋宇、肖像或團體大合照。

令人驚喜地，當動態圖像進入荷屬東印度時，民眾認可它和接受它的速度很快，這是因為這裡早已有了觀看舞台奇觀（stage spectacle）的既有文化。例如偶戲（哇揚皮影戲wayang、東爪哇戲劇ludruk）和舞台奇觀（跨國印尼民俗劇Komedie Stamboel、歐洲與馬來的舞台歌劇Toneel opera）在這裡是普遍的娛樂，通常在公共空間或公共建物裡舉辦，讓有能力買票的觀眾欣賞。民眾很快就能理解動態圖像是什麼了，也很快就熱切期盼著這種新型的、在新的媒介上呈現的娛樂產品，他們期待動態圖像能夠比既有的奇觀娛樂提供更多東西。

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不同國籍和族裔的創業者或實業家，很快就讓動態圖像大眾化與商業化，發展速度就跟西方一樣快。透過這些獨立的實業家，早期電影幾乎立刻成為一種全球現象，向全世界觀眾展示了全景式的新奇，包括了僻遠殖民地上的電影放映與在地製作。

一篇刊於《De Kinematograaf》的文章指出，一次世界大戰之前，荷屬東印度只是荷蘭傾銷老舊破損影片拷貝的一個市場罷了。所以，即使荷蘭人從來沒在荷屬東印度早期電影業裡擔任過片商或製片，人們仍有機會一睹來自西方的最新電影（在歐陸首映一至兩年之後）。根據報載，威廉明娜女王1898年就職典禮的紀錄片於1900左右就在荷屬東印度上映了。

最早在巴達維亞有留下紀錄的電影放映活動是發生在1896年。在電影引進荷屬東印度的過程裡，兩個名字（以及兩種電影裝置）值得一提：帶來活動電影放映機（Kinetoscope）的Harley，以及帶來「Cinematograph」的Louis Talbot。

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同年，Harley用留聲機搭配了愛迪生的活動電影放映機（Kinetoscope）放映了動態圖像。活動電影放映機（Kinetoscope）是一附有窺孔（peephole）的機械系統，一次可讓一人觀看。伴隨留聲機的聲響，它所放映的是栩栩如生、富有動態的活動照片（animated photography）。它也有可充電的電池裝置。如同當年稱為電影機 （Cinematograph／Scenimatograph）的投影裝置將影像呈現在巨大屏幕上，就像我們今天在電影院所看到的畫面。

Louis Talbot本人是長年在巴達維亞活動的法國照相師，從1894年起他就在巴達維亞經營一家照相館，市民公認他很專業。不久後，《爪哇先鋒報》（Java-Bode）提到，最早的活動照片（animated photography）的商業放映，是在1896年10月11日禮拜天，放映的機器叫做電影機 （Cinematograph／Scenimatograph），放映師是Talbot。Louis Talbot也是最早攝製殖民地印尼的當地風光然後放映給在地觀眾欣賞的人，這些影片的觀眾也橫跨了整個東南亞。

1896年10月9日，公映日的前兩天，廣告已經在巴達維亞的報紙上出現了。放映地點在巴達維亞戲院（Batavia Theatre，Batavia Schouwburg，亦即komedie gebouw或komedie house），位於華人中國城的街區，表訂兩場放映，一場晚上6：30開始，另一場則是晚上7：30。

儘管放映十分成功並吸引許多觀眾，可惜出了一些問題。比如，由於荷屬東印度（印尼）的熱帶氣候，影片膠卷要保存在最佳狀況是一個挑戰。這導致了膠卷的短命，以及盡量在膠卷壞掉之前頻繁放映。悲傷的是，這種可憐的保存狀況，直到今天的印尼還是一樣，我們失去了太多能讓我們追溯我們電影史的珍貴檔案了。

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電影院：觀眾與銀幕

出於各種因素，荷屬東印度（印尼）的電影放映有其特殊的歷史、經驗與映演文化。這些尚待進一步論述的因素是，映演空間建築、經濟衝擊以及社會階級體系。

1897年4月Louis Talbot在泗水（Surabaya）的第一次電影放映秀之後，它和其它娛樂活動與其它電影實業家之間的競爭張力也增加了。當電影放映秀開始從既有戲院（像是泗水戲院Surabaya Theatre和東爪哇戲院Kapasan Theatre）轉進更大的馬戲團帳篷、或獨立巡迴帆布帳篷，因為這些帳篷提供給「在地」觀眾較低的座位票價，觀眾組成的多元性增加了，隨之棚內的空間配置也需要相應的調整，這些都成為在泗水的觀影經驗之重要成分。

和在巴達維亞類似，在建立第一座長久映演空間Kebon Jahe cinema之前，是有臨時的放映建物的。這些臨時映演建物多數是由帆布或竹枝所搭設的行動帳篷，能夠容納大量觀眾。票價從0.1f到2f（這裡的貨幣記號f，是指荷屬安地列斯盾Antillean Guilder或基爾德Gulden），依照投影機的清晰度、在建築裡搭棚放映、或者是露天放映而定價。映演的最大客群，乃是想要一睹奇觀的較低社會階層的觀眾，所以大多數售出的都是第二等或第三等的門票。1900年11月30日，《Bintang Betawi》日報刊出一則廣告：來自歐洲和北非的電影即將上映。這場電影秀在晚上7點開始，門票有三個等級，最高等級的票價是f2；次一等是f1；第三等是f0.5。

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之後的1901年，戲院老闆們推動兩個政策：入場的門票減價，同時禁止巴達維亞的木偶秀。這個禁令是巴達維亞市府（Resident of Batavia）的決議，從1900年4月1日強制執行到1902年3月底。這使得電影觀眾人數劇增。民眾早已厭倦那些週六夜間娛樂秀的奇觀，並紛紛轉向電影。當然，在男女分開坐的戲院座席配置之前，座位還要先按照種族來做區隔。頭等座位是歐洲人的，次等的則給中國人、印度人、或非歐洲的外國人，第三等座席裡的是「在地」觀眾。「在地」觀眾坐在銀幕後方或斜上方，所以他們看到的圖像和字幕都是反過來的或是扭曲的。1

這種座位的票價最低（f0.1），但在二十世紀初期這可是一公升米的價錢，對比今日一個荷蘭盾的價值約為45美分。為此，民眾或者是預支工資，或者是典當值錢的東西來負擔票價。1905年左右，觀眾的這種行為被怪罪在電影院頭上，比如中爪哇茂物（Buitenzorg，今天的Bogor）的一名雇主抱怨說：「員工不得再請求預支工資，因為他們都會說是他們的爸爸或媽媽過世了、要錢辦後事。我僱用的一個馬伕甚至死了七次媽媽，這都因為他們想要去電影院。」

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當劇情片在1903年也看得到時，票價也開始上漲了。劇情片如《達西瑪姨娘》（Njai Dasima）以及喬治‧梅里愛（Méliès）出品的作品，還有紀錄片的放映，把潮流轉到了另一個方向。看電影的流行持續增溫、擴散，到了1905年，電影實業家人數倍增，投影裝置也更容易取得、買賣、流通。根據報導，光是1907這一年就有35家電影公司在爪哇巡迴，每一座竹製帳篷裡一天就有三場電影秀，總共容納了好幾千名的觀眾。

到了1910年代初期，磚蓋或石砌的電影院，在印尼大小群島的城鄉裡，有如雨後春筍般冒了出來。之後，荷屬東印度（印尼）自身的電影史在1920年代開始了，這時，印尼民眾自己開始拍攝電影。今天，荷屬東印度（印尼）時代作為娛樂商品的電影秀的影響，已經演進到其它形式與功能：表演藝術、錄像藝術、媒體藝術、地圖繪製術以及許多其它。

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參考書目

[1] Misbach Yusa Biran, Sejarah Film 1900-1950 Bikin Film di Jawa, Jakarta: Komunitas Bambu, 2009.
[2] Dafna Ruppin, The Komedi Bioscoop: The Emergence of Movie-going in Colonial Indonesia 1896-1914, John Libbey Publishing Limited.
[3] M. Sarief Arief, Permasalahan Sensor Dan Pertanggungjawaban Etika Produksi, Jakarta: Badan Pertimbangan Perfilman Nasional, 1997.

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[INDONESIA]

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